The 100 studies composed by J. B. Cramer are essential milestones for the pianist preparing to become a professional. The composer himself writes, in the Preface to his first edition, that he composed the studies to: “facilitate the progress of those who intend to study the piano seriously.”

The studies were first published in 1803 in two series of 42 pieces; later, the 16 studies of Op. 81 were added (source: Gallica). Cramer was German but lived between England (he was a pupil of M. Clementi) and the France of F. Chopin. Great names are associated with this highly esteemed musician, hence the London epithet “glorious.” He lived to the age of 87 and had the good fortune of knowing the great pianists of the early nineteenth century. His studies were immediately adopted as didactic material, and many great names testify to their pedagogical value: L. v. Beethoven, F. Chopin, Hans von Bülow, and many others.

Browsing through the original collection of Cramer’s studies, I noticed that there is no gradual order of difficulty; therefore, studying them does not imply following the numerical order. Ideally, one should study them all, because each contains technical formulas found in many piano compositions of the time.

I focus on Hans von Bülow’s edition (thanks to which Cramer’s studies returned to didactic use). He prepared a critical revision of 60 studies, selected from the 100, in which he changed the numbering, fingering, phrasing, and arranged them in order of technical‑expressive difficulty. Bülow, as Alessandro Longo states, “provided rational fingering and added annotations and advice suggested by experience,” and in the Preface to the 60 studies of the 1988 Curci edition he declares: “I have eliminated the harshness of the fingering, almost all due to the rigid system adopted by Bülow regarding the alternation of fingers.” Bülow’s annotations are very precise, and he often emphasizes the importance of transposing the studies into other keys, preferring those with many black keys.

It is undoubtedly useful to play the studies in multiple positions; however, I do not agree with his choice to publish Study No. 3 (No. 7 in Bülow’s numbering) in D‑flat major instead of D major, which, as Longo states, “was done to simplify the fingering and the technique of legato.” Furthermore, the metronome indication appears as quarter note = 100, whereas in the first edition preserved at the Bibliothèque nationale de France it is eighth note = 100. Since it is marked Moderato and the right hand is written in sixteenth notes, the latter seems far more plausible.

Before 1800 there were no collections of “studies”; instead, one finds the terms “lessons” and “exercises.” Muzio Clementi wrote several didactic methods, such as Preludes and Exercises (first edition 1811) for the study of scales in all major and minor keys. Unlike Cramer’s studies, these are repetitive “exercises” whose sole purpose is to teach scales in all their forms, leaving aside interpretative aspects.

The piano was invented in the early 1700s, and by 1800 the mechanics and pedals had been perfected; thus, the improvement of the instrument required a corresponding refinement of pianistic technique. A turning point came precisely in 1803: Cramer published the first book of 42 studies — the first of its kind — consisting of repeated note patterns in various forms, designed to develop speed, coordination, and endurance.

Classicism was giving way to Romanticism, and this new musical form, the “study,” would lead to compositions of pure poetry, combining didactic purpose with artistic and expressive value, as technique demanded new elements. Cramer’s studies mark an important milestone in pianistic technique because they preserve all the techniques proper to the piano, no longer tied to harpsichord technique, and they open the way to the transcendental technique of Chopin, Liszt, Alkan, and others. Adolf von Henselt prepared a version of Cramer’s studies for two pianos (Étida J. B. Cramers, op. 41): the first piano presents the studies as written by Cramer, while the second plays the “skeleton” of the pieces in the form of a figurated chorale.

The piano was invented by the Paduan harpsichord maker Bartolomeo Cristofori at the request of Prince Ferdinando de’ Medici. The earliest surviving instrument is preserved at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor and bears the date 1702.

In 1711 it was described in detail by Scipione Maffei in the Giornale dei letterati, and later in 1719 in his Rime e Prose. The publication made Cristofori’s invention known in other countries, inspiring the Germans Schroter and Silbermann (who attempted to claim the fame of being the first piano makers) to build similar instruments.

Cristofori’s instrument, called cembalo piano e forte, differed from the modern piano: it had no pedals, the hammers were placed below the strings, and the sound resembled that of a harpsichord. Yet, as historian Sergio Durante notes, the essential characteristics of the instrument played by Mozart and Beethoven were already present. Silbermann began building pianos in 1726 and presented them to J. S. Bach, who was not enthusiastic about the weak treble and the heaviness of the keyboard. Bach’s severe judgment led Silbermann to stop building pianos for years, though he continued secretly to improve the mechanism and reintroduced them twenty years later. On 7 May 1747, in the palace of Frederick the Great in Potsdam, J. S. Bach played a Silbermann instrument and was satisfied with the improvements (although he remained faithful to the harpsichord throughout his life).

The earliest pianos were fragile: wooden frames, thin strings, delicate mechanisms. For this reason, the instrument did not initially enjoy great success. The harpsichord remained dominant until the arrival of the great Viennese Classicists (Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven) and the great Muzio Clementi.

Thanks to continuous innovations, the great Classical composers dedicated numerous works to the new instrument. Beethoven in particular contributed to the development of the fortepiano, offering useful advice to builders regarding the robustness of the frame and the mechanics. Historically, the evolution and diffusion of pianos were made possible by the first Industrial Revolution, which originated in Britain. Scientific research stimulated technological discoveries; agriculture was in the hands of innovative landowners; manufacturing and mining industries generated capital; transportation networks expanded; cities grew; and internal and international trade flourished.

The market was ready to absorb new products. In this context, the economic and social conditions for mass production of pianos emerged, especially in England. Machines could produce mechanical components more quickly, lowering costs and making the instrument accessible to more people. The piano, always a social status symbol, became a hallmark of Georgian and especially Victorian England. Every bourgeois household had a piano. From 1770 onward, square pianos became widespread: rich, mellow sound, more so than the vertical and grand pianos of the time. They were domestic instruments, not intended for concert use. The late‑eighteenth‑century square piano became popular and played an important role in the commercial evolution of the piano, transforming it from an elite instrument into a mass‑market good.

In 1768, the London builder Johann Zumpe promoted the sale of his small square pianos. Production was only 500 instruments per year — far too few to meet demand. Other builders opened workshops in London, such as the Scotsman John Broadwood, who began selling square pianos in 1780. A grand piano cost 70 guineas (about €16,800 today): a luxury item, difficult to sell. Square pianos sold for 20–27 guineas, far more accessible.

Between 1782 and 1802, Broadwood sold 7,000 square pianos and only 1,000 grands. He had representatives in various countries (UK, France, Spain, Haiti, the East Indies) and exported to Russia, Denmark, Portugal, Italy, and America. High production and competitive prices were possible because Broadwood organized his workshop efficiently: each technician specialized in building a single part of the piano, which was then assembled and decorated — a process very similar to modern mass production. Until 1790, square pianos rested on four legs; later, elegant Sheraton‑style furniture with saber legs appeared, followed by Regency style with six turned legs and bronze decorations. The woods were fine (mahogany, maple), richly decorated and inlaid. Each builder painted or stamped his name; Clementi loved this type of decoration and used it extensively.

Germany and France also had significant piano production, and builders sought publicity and sponsors. Gifting instruments to great musicians was an effective promotional strategy. Broadwood often used this method, not only in England with Clementi but also abroad. In 1817 he sent Beethoven a grand piano as a gift — a major commercial victory, given that Austrian builders were England’s main competitors. In this scenario, the great pianist‑composers of the Classical era, increasingly drawn to the new instrument, fostered the development of its mechanics and repertoire.

Antonietta Cappelli